GREEK

Originally, Greek had a lot of different dialects and local alphabet varieties, as a logical result of the Greek world being politically fragmented.
Eventually the East Ionic alphabet became the standard alphabet and a “common” dialect based on Attic Greek replaced the individual varieties. However, this was a gradual change that only started in the 4th Century BC.
In the earliest settings, all of the Greek factions preserve their individual dialects and alphabet types, but even in the latest settings many differences are preserved because the standardization of Greek was still in its early stages.

The Greek dialects can be grouped into several main groups or “families”. For us only the three most important ones are relevant (because they are the only ones represented by factions in our settings)
Western: Doric and Northwestern
Eastern: Attic and Ionic
Aeolic: Thessalian, Boeotian and Lesbian

Doric, Northwestern and Ionic are also in turn larger sub-groups that are further subdivided into more individual dialects.


General features of all Greek


One thing to note about ancient Greek is that it had two different long o-sounds and two different long e-sounds. This matters because they were often written differently across the different dialects.
These were (along with their spelling in Classical Greek, which may be different in Archaic Greek dialects):
/e:/ (written ει in Classical Greek, pronounced approx like in English “bay”)
/ɛ:/ (written η in Classical Greek, pronounced approx like in English “bed”, but longer)
/o:/ (written ου in Classical Greek, pronounced approx like in English “go”)
/ɔ:/ (written ω in Classical Greek, pronounced approx like in English “thought”)


ALPHABET AND ROMANIZATION (Representing foreign letters in Hegemony’s font)

Originally, the Greek alphabet had quite a few more letters than it has now. At the earliest settings, quite a few of these Archaic letters are still around.

Most Greek letters are straightforward as they have direct equivalents in Latin. Noteworthy letters listed here:

---Greek η (Eta) was originally used for /h/, like the English letter H. At some point, certain areas of Greece started using it for /ɛ:/ instead.
When used as /h/ I romanized it as H, but when used as /ɛ:/ I romanized it as E.
---Greek θ (Theta) romanized as TH
---Greek ξ (Xi) romanized as X
---Greek υ (Upsilon) originally had a sound value /u/ like Latin/German u, English oo. But then in certain (eastern) areas of Greece it changed to /y/ like French u, German ü (doesn’t exist in English), except for in diphthongs au, eu, ou where it remained /u/.
When used as /u/ I romanized it as U, and when used as /y/ I romanized it as Y. (E.g. West Greek Subaris, East Greek Sybaris)
---Greek φ (Phi) romanized as PH
---Greek χ (Chi) romanized as CH
---Greek ψ (Psi) romanized as PS
---Greek ω (Omega) romanized as O
---Greek σ (Sigma) and Archaic Greek Ϻ (San) both romanized as S.
San was an alternative letter for /s/, most Greeks used either Sigma or San, not both.
---Archaic Greek Ϝ (Digamma) romanized as W.
Digamma stood for the sound /w/, which was lost in Greek early on. When the sound was lost, the letter Digamma disappeared as well (but not before being transferred to the Etruscan/Latin alphabet in Italy)
---Archaic Greek Ϙ (Qoppa) romanized as Q.
Qoppa was another letter for the sound /k/ that Kappa also represents. Kappa and Qoppa were used simultaneously but in different contexts, with Qoppa appearing before the vowels /o/ /u/ /ɔ/ and Kappa before the rest. (E.g. Qorinthos, Qroton, Kameiros, Krimisa)
---Greek ρ (Rho) romanized as RH when aspirated, R otherwise.
Rho is usually aspirated when at the beginning of a word, or the second of a double Rho (E.g. Rhodos, Pyrrhos)

No differentiation between Omega and Omicron, and Eta and Epsilon, due to the Hegemony strategy map font not accepting letters with macrons which is what you would usually use to romanize Omega and Eta.

Representation of foreign sounds
---/f/, a sound Ancient Greek didn’t have, was represented using Phi (E.g. Latin Felsina, Greek Phelsina)
---/u/, in those dialects that changed the value of Upsilon to /y/, was represented by ou. (E.g. Latin Minturnae, West Greek Minturnai, East Greek Mintournai)
---/w/, in those dialects that lost the sound /w/ and the letter Digamma, /w/ is written the same as /u/ (E.g. Latin Vetulonium, West Greek Uetulonion, East Greek Ouetoulonion)
---/j/ written i

DECLENSION
-O-stem (names that are usually -us or -um in Latin, -os or -on in Greek)
-----Nominative singular (masc): -os (E.g. Latin Arrius -> Greek Arrios)
-----Nominative singular (neut): -on (E.g. Latin Auximum -> Greek Auximon)
-----Genitive singular: -/o:/ (E.g. “Pyrrhou” in Helenos Pyrrhou)
-----Nominative plural: -oi (E.g. Latin Carni -> Greek Karnoi)
-----Genitive plural: -/ɔ:n/ (E.g. Latin Bagiennorum -> Greek Bagiennon)

-A-stem (names that are usually -a or -as)
-----Nominative singular (fem): -a, but in some dialects -/ɛ:/ (E.g. Greek Zankla/Zankle)
-----Nominative singular (masc): -as, but in some dialects -/ɛ:s/ (E.g. Greek Leonidas/Leonides)
-----Genitive singular: -as, but in some dialects -/ɛ:s/ (E.g. “Makedonias” in Philippos Makedonias)
-----Nominative plural: -ai (E.g. Latin Pisae-> Greek Pisai)
-----Genitive plural: varies, -/e.ɔ:n/ in Ionic (E.g. Latin Zoelarum -> Ionic Zoileon), which is the only dialect in which it matters for our purposes. It’s the only Greek dialect in Iberia and Iberia is the only setting in which an a-stem genitive plural appears.

-Consonant-stem
-----In nominative singular, many names that have -o in Latin get -/ɔ:n/ in Greek (E.g. Latin Milo, Greek Milon)
-----Genitive singular: -os (E.g. “Qrotonos” in Milon Qrotonos)
-----Genitive plural: -/ɔ:n/ (E.g. Latin Portus Amanum -> Greek Portos Amanon)

-I-stem
-----Genitive plural: -/e.ɔ:n/ (E.g. Latin Portus Blendium -> Greek Portos Blendeon)

Other cases/declensions either don’t occur in our names or are the same across all languages, so are omitted to keep things simple.

OTHER
-----Diphthongs ae/oe become ai/oi in Greek (E.g. Latin Zoelarum -> Greek Zoileon, Latin Aegeae -> Greek Aigeai)
-----sn between vowels may become just n with lengthening of the previous vowel (E.g. Etruscan Pesna -> Greek /pe:.na/ so Peina or Pena depending on spelling of /e:/) (Except in Thessalian)
-----/e.ɛ:/ contracts into just /ɛ:/ (E.g. Heraklewes -> Herakles when /w/ is lost (/e.wɛ:/ -> /e.ɛ:/ -> /ɛ:/))
-----/e.e:/ contracts into just /e:/ (E.g. Herakleweos -> Herakleios/Herakleos (depending on spelling of /e:/) when /w/ is lost (/e.we:/ -> /e.e:/ -> /e:/))
-----/o.e:/ and /o.e/ contract into /o:/ (E.g. Selinowes -> Selinous/Selinos (depending on spelling of /o:/) when /w/ is lost (/o.we:/ -> /o.e:/ -> /o:/), Lykowergos->Lykourgos/Lykorgos)
-----/a.o/ contracts into /ɔ:/ (E.g. Phawotios -> Photios when /w/ is lost (/a.wo/ -> /a.o/ -> /ɔ:/)

-----Specific names where Greek uses a different root than other languages
--------Kaisra/Kisra/Caere -> Greek Agylla
--------Verona -> Greek Thyeron
--------Velch/Vulci -> Greek Wolkion/Olkion
--------Bescia -> Greek Besidia
--------Kart Hadasht/Carthago Nova -> Greek Karchedon a Nea
--------Punic -baal, -kart names -> Greek -bas, -kas
--------Bevipo -> Greek Keition
--------Kale -> Greek Kaladounon
--------Malaka -> Greek Mainake
--------Gadir -> Greek Gadeira
--------Iliberri -> Greek Elibyrge
--------Kelin -> Greek Althaia
--------Iberian -ker, -tur names -> Greek -kros, -tros
--------A bunch of other alterations too minor to list

-----ns between vowels may become just s with lengthening of the previous vowel (E.g. Latin Consentia -> Greek Kosentia/Kousentia depending on spelling of /o:/)
-----Value of upsilon is changed from /u/ to /y/ (E.g. Other Greek Subaris -> Eastern Greek Sybaris)
-----/w/ and corresponding letter Digamma lost early (E.g. Archaic Greek Wiswokrates -> Eastern Greek Isokrates)
-----/ɛ:.e/ contracts into just /ɛ:/ (E.g. Hawelios -> Helios after long a becomes /ɛ:/ in Eastern Greek and /w/ is lost (/a:.we/ -> /ɛ:.we/ -> /ɛ:.e/ -> /ɛ:/))

-----All long a become /ɛ:/ (but short a is preserved). (E.g. Other Greek Stageira -> Ionic Stageire, Latin Lanuvium -> Ionic Lenouion, Other Greek Pausanias -> Ionic Pausanies)
-----/oɛ:/ contracts into /ɔ:/ (E.g. Other Greek Thoenon -> Ionic Thonon)
-----In the earlier settings, /e.ɛ:/ from /e.wɛ:/ is preserved and doesn’t yet contract into /ɛ:/ (e.g. original Newapolis, Heraklewes -> Early Ionic Neepolis, Heraklees -> Later Ionic Nepolis, Herakles)
-----In the later settings, /e.o/ becomes /eu/. (E.g. Early Ionic Leonnatos, -> Later Ionic Leunnatos)

-----Specific words/elements:
--------Poly -> Pollo (E.g. other Greek Polykarpos -> Ionic Pollokarpos)
--------Kratos -> Kartos (E.g. other Greek Philokrates -> Ionic Philokartes)
--------Hieros -> Hiros and Onyma -> Onoma (E.g. other Greek Hieronymos -> Ionic Hironomos/Ironomos)
--------Timo- names -> Time- (E.g. other Greek Timotheos -> Ionic Timetheos/Timetheus)

-----West Ionic (Euboean)
-----rs becomes rrh (E.g. Other Greek Arsenios -> Euboean Arrhenios)

-----The Euboeans already adopted the East Ionic alphabet in the 5th Century, but in the earliest setting we still use the Euboean native alphabet, with the following features:
--------The original alphabet lacked Psi and wrote its sound as Phi-Sigma instead (E.g. Latin Vipsanius -> early Euboean Ouiphsenios -> later Ouipsenios)
--------The original alphabet still had Qoppa (E.g. Early Euboean Qroton -> later Kroton)
--------In the original alphabet /e:/ and /o:/ were written just E, O (E.g. Early Euboean Klesthenes, Lyqorgos -> later Kleisthenes, Lykourgos)
--------In the original alphabet Eta still stood for /h/, in the East Ionic script they were incapable of writing their /h/ sounds (E.g. Early Euboean Hesperos, later Esperos)

-----Central Ionic (Only represented by Parian in-game)
-----When /w/ was lost, any vowels directly before a consonant in turn directly before that w would be lengthened. (E.g. Xenwon -> Parian Xeinon (/e:/), other Greek Xenon)
-----In-game only occurs in a setting after the adoption of the East Ionic script

-----East Ionic
-----Psilosis (loss of all /h/ sounds), but aspirated consonants chi, theta & phi are preserved. (E.g. Archaic Greek Hesiodos -> East Ionic Esiodos)
-----When /w/ was lost, any vowels directly before a consonant in turn directly before that w would be lengthened. (E.g. Xenwon -> East Ionic Xeinon (/e:/), other Greek Xenon)
-----Alphabet was like the Classical Greek one in that it had no Qoppa, used Eta for /ɛ:/, wrote /e:/, /o:/ as EI, OU, etc

-----Long a becomes /ɛ:/ (but short a is preserved), EXCEPT when directly after i, r, or e. (E.g. Western Greek Bottika, Latin Lanuvium -> Attic Bottike, Lenouion. But Attic Stageira, Pausanias rather than Ionic Stageire, Pausanies)
-----/ɛ:.ɔ:/ contracts into /ɔ:/ (E.g. Poseidaon -> Poseideon (long a to ɛ:) -> Poseidon)
-----ss becomes s (E.g. Other Greek Kassandros -> Attic Kasandros)
-----rs becomes rrh (E.g. Other Greek Arsenios -> Attic Arrhenios)
-----/e.o/ sometimes contracts into /o:/ (E.g. Theokydides -> Thoukydides)
-----In-game only occurs in settings after the adoption of the East Ionic script

-----long a preserved (E.g. Western Greek Zankla, Eastern Greek Zankle)
-----Upsilon retains /u/ sound (E.g. Western Greek Subaris, Eastern Greek Sybaris)
-----/a:.o/ contracts into just /a:/ (E.g. Wanaxilaos -> Wanaxilas (-> Anaxilas with loss of /w/))
-----/a:.ɔ:/ contracts into just /a:/ (E.g. Poseidaon -> Poteidan/Pohoidan)
-----ns between vowels may become just s with lengthening of the previous vowel, except in Cretan (E.g. Latin Consentia -> Cretan Konsentia, Other Greek Kosentia/Kousentia depending on spelling of /o:/)
-----/a:.e/ contracts into just /a:/ (E.g. Hawelios -> Halios after /w/ is lost (/a:.we/ -> /a:.e/ -> /a:/))

-----Specific words/elements:
--------Skylletion -> Skullakion
--------Poseidaon -> Poteidan (E.g. Attic Poseidonia/Ionic Poseideonia -> Western Greek Poteidania) (Except in Laconian)
-------- -sia/-sios -> -tia/-tios in certain names (E.g. Artemisios -> Artemitios)
--------Meta- -> Peda- (E.g. Metapontion -> Pedapontion)
--------Hieros -> Hiaros (E.g. Attic Hieronymos, Western Greek Hiaronumos) (but not in the latest settings, when Koine (Common) Greek influence undid this peculiarity)
--------Artemis -> Artamis (E.g. Artemios -> Artamios) (Except in Cretan)


-----Laconian

-----LT becomes NT in Peloponnesian dialects (E.g. Lat Altinum -> Peloponnesian Greek Antinon)
-----In the earliest settings, /w/ is still retained in initial and intervocalic position, but not directly before or after consonants. In later settings the intervocalic one is lost again, but initial /w/ is preserved notably long in Laconian (E.g. prehistoric Wiswokrates -> Laconian Wisokrates, but Early Laconian Klewon -> Later Laconian Kleon)
-----E before another vowel becomes I, except in the latest setting in which it’s E again due to the standardizing influence from common (Koine) Greek (E.g. Leonidas -> early/mid Laconian Lionidas)
-----S between vowels becomes H, except in the latest setting in which it’s S again due to the standardizing influence from common (Koine) Greek (E.g. Pausanias -> early/mid Laconian Pauhanias)
-----Diphthong eu before another vowel is written euw in the earliest setting (E.g. Euaristos -> early Laconian Euwaristos)
-----SK becomes KK (E.g. Asklon -> Laconian Akklon)
-----In the later settings, TH (Theta) becomes S (E.g. Parenthos -> mid Laconian Parensos)
-----In the latest setting, word-final -s becomes -r (E.g. mid Laconian Parensos -> late Laconian Parensor)

-----The Laconians in Italy already adopted the East Ionic alphabet in the 5th Century, but their version of the Ionic alphabet was a bit different. Here are features of both the native Laconian and the Tarantine version of the Ionic alphabet:
--------Even the native Laconian alphabet had already stopped using Qoppa (E.g. Other Early Greek Qroton -> Early Laconian Kroton)
--------In the original alphabet /e:/ and /o:/ were written just E, O, but in the Ionic alphabet they were written Eta and Omega rather than the usual EI, OU (E.g. Klesthenes, Plotarchos (or late Klesthener, Plotarchor) in all settings rather than usual late Greek Kleisthenes, Ploutarchos)
--------The Tarantine version of the Ionic script retained /h/-value Eta and Digamma, where usually the Ionic script lacked it. (E.g. Hesiodos, Wisokrates (or late Hesiodor, Wisokrater) in all settings rather than usual late Greek Esiodos, Isokrates)

-----Specific words/elements:
--------Poseidan -> Pohoidan (E.g. Other Western Greek Poteidania, Laconian Pohoidania)
--------Apollon -> Apellon (E.g. Apollodoros -> Apellodoros)

-----Cretan

-----Still has /w/ in initial position in the 400 BC setting, the only one in which this faction appears in-game. When /w/ was lost, any vowels directly before a consonant in turn directly before that w would be lengthened (like in East Ionic), but in Cretan it makes no difference in the Romanized result as e.g. /e:/ was written E rather than EI. (E.g. prehistoric Wiswokrates -> Cretan Wisokrates, Xenwon -> Cretan Xenon (/e:/), other Greek Xenon (/e/))
-----Psilosis (loss of all /h/ sounds), but aspirated consonant theta is preserved. (E.g. Archaic Greek Hesiodos -> Cretan Esiodos)
-----Z becomes D, or DD between vowels (E.g. Zankla, Uzenton -> Cretan Dankla, Uddenton)
-----Consonant clusters KT, PT, STH, RN, MN, SG are simplified to TT, TT, THTH, NN, MM, GG respectively. (E.g. Kala Akta, Ptolemaios, Damosthenes, Libarna, Interamna, Tasgetios -> Cretan Kala Atta, Tolemaios, Damoththenes, Libanna, Interamma, Taggetios)
-----E before another vowel becomes I (E.g. Leonidas -> Cretan Lionidas)
-----short RA/RO become AR/OR in certain conditions (E.g. Akragas, Kroton -> Cretan Akargas, Korton)

-----In-game only occurs in a setting in which it hasn’t yet adopted the East Ionic script. Features of its native alphabet are:
--------Qoppa lost in the 5th Century BC (before the 400 BC setting in which Cretan appears in-game) (E.g. Korton not Qorton)
--------/e:/ and /o:/ written as just E and O (E.g. Kleththenes, Plotarchos rather than Kleiththenes, Ploutarchos)
--------SS written as Z (E.g. Other Greek Kossa -> Cretan Koza)
--------No letters Phi or Chi, written simply as P/K instead (E.g. Other West Greek Nikaphoros, Tuchon -> Cretan Nikaporos, Tukon)
--------No letter Xi, written simple as KS instead (E.g. other Greek Xanthippos -> Cretan Ksanthippos)

-----Specific words/elements:
--------Apollon -> Apellon (E.g. Apollodoros -> Apellodoros)

-----Rhodian

------Has lost /w/ entirely by the 425 and 380 BC settings, the only ones in which this language group appears in-game. When /w/ was lost, any vowels directly before a consonant in turn directly before that w would be lengthened (like in East Ionic). (E.g. Xenwon -> Rhodian Xeinon (/e:/), other Greek Xenon)

-----In-game only occurs in a setting after the adoption of the East Ionic script

-----Specific words/elements:
--------Timo- names -> Tima- (E.g. Timotheos -> Timatheos)

-----Syracusan
(Spoke Corinthian, but used a different alphabet)

-----LT becomes NT in Peloponnesian dialects (E.g. Lat Altinum -> Peloponnesian Greek Antinon)
-----In the earliest settings, /w/ is still retained in initial and intervocalic position, but not directly before or after consonants. In later settings it is lost entirely (E.g. prehistoric Wiswokrates -> early Wisokrates -> later Isokrates)

-----Specific words/elements:
--------Rhegion -> Syracusan Phoibea
--------Apollon -> Apellon (E.g. Apollodoros -> Apellodoros)

-----Syracuse already adopted the East Ionic alphabet in the 5th Century, but in the earliest setting we still use the native alphabet, with the following features:
--------The original alphabet still had Qoppa (E.g. Early Qroton -> later Kroton)
--------In the original alphabet /e:/ and /o:/ were written just E, O (E.g. Early Klesthenes, Plotarchos -> later Kleisthenes, Ploutarchos)
--------In the original alphabet Eta still stood for /h/, in the East Ionic script they were incapable of writing their /h/ sounds (E.g. Early Hesiodos, later Esiodos)

-----Megarian

-----LT becomes NT in Peloponnesian dialects (E.g. Lat Altinum -> Peloponnesian Greek Antinon)
-----In the earliest settings, /w/ is still retained if it’s the first letter of a word, but not elsewhere. In later settings it is lost entirely (E.g. prehistoric Wiswokrates -> early Wisokrates -> later Isokrates)

-----The Megarians in Italy already adopted the East Ionic alphabet in the 5th Century, but in the earliest setting we still use the native alphabet, with the following features:
--------The original alphabet (at least in Selinous) still had Qoppa (E.g. Early Qroton -> later Kroton)
--------In the original alphabet /e:/ and /o:/ were written just E, O (E.g. Early Klesthenes, Plotarchos -> later Kleisthenes, Ploutarchos)
--------In the original alphabet Eta still stood for /h/, in the East Ionic script they were incapable of writing their /h/ sounds (E.g. Early Hesiodos, later Esiodos)

-----Specific words/elements
--------Theo- names become Tho- if followed by a double consonant or The- if followed by a single consonant (E.g. Theokritos, Theodotos -> Megarian Thokritos, Thedotos)

-----Achaean

-----LT becomes NT in Peloponnesian dialects (E.g. Lat Altinum -> Peloponnesian Greek Antinon)
-----In the earliest settings, /w/ is still retained in initial and intervocalic position, but not directly before or after consonants. In later settings it is lost entirely (E.g. prehistoric Wiswokrates -> early Wisokrates -> later Isokrates)

-----The Achaeans in Italy already adopted the East Ionic alphabet in the 5th Century, but in the earliest setting we still use the native alphabet, with the following features:
--------The original alphabet still had Qoppa (E.g. Early Qroton -> later Kroton)
--------In the original alphabet /e:/ and /o:/ were written just E, O (E.g. Early Klesthenes, Plotarchos -> later Kleisthenes, Ploutarchos)
--------In the original alphabet Eta still stood for /h/, in the East Ionic script they were incapable of writing their /h/ sounds (E.g. Early Hesiodos, later Esiodos)


-----STH becomes ST (E.g. Other West Greek Damosthenes -> Northwest Greek Damostenes)
-----short /e/ becomes /a/ before R (E.g. Interamna -> Northwest Greek Intaramna)

-----Locrian

-----In the earliest settings, /w/ is still retained in initial and intervocalic position, but not directly before or after consonants. In later settings it is lost entirely (E.g. prehistoric Wiswokrates -> early Wisokrates -> later Isokrates)

-----The Locrians in Italy already adopted the East Ionic alphabet in the 5th Century, but in the earliest setting we still use the native alphabet, with the following features:
--------The original alphabet still had Qoppa (E.g. Early Qroton -> later Kroton)
--------In the original alphabet /e:/ and /o:/ were written just E, O (E.g. Early Klestenes, Plotarchos -> later Kleistenes, Ploutarchos)
--------In the original alphabet Eta still stood for /h/, in the East Ionic script they were incapable of writing their /h/ sounds (E.g. Early Hesiodos, later Esiodos)

-----Epirote
(spoke Northwest Greek, with a Corinthian script)

-----In the earliest settings, /w/ is still retained in initial and intervocalic position, but not directly before or after consonants. In later settings it is lost entirely (E.g. prehistoric Wiswokrates -> early Wisokrates -> later Isokrates)

-----Epirus was later than the Italian Greeks to adopt the East Ionic alphabet, so in the early and mid settings we still use the Corinthian alphabet, with the following features:
-------In the earliest setting the Corinthian script still had Qoppa, but by the mid setting it is probably just about lost (E.g. Early Qroton -> later Kroton)
--------In the Corinthian alphabet /o:/ was already written OU early on. /e:/ was originally written with a special symbol (Romanized just as E), but EI by the mid period. (E.g. Early Klestenes -> mid/late Kleistenes. Ploutarchos in all periods)
--------In the original alphabet Eta still stood for /h/, in the East Ionic script they were incapable of writing their /h/ sounds (E.g. Early/mid Hesiodos, late Esiodos)

The original Macedonian language isn’t too well attested and it’s unclear whether it’s just a dialect of Greek or a separate sister language. However, it seems to display the most similarities to Western Greek so I approached it by just using basic Western Greek with a few known peculiarities from Macedonian.
Note that Macedonia only uses this in the ~400 BC Italy Invader mode, as by ~360 BC in the Macedon mod it had switched to Attic as its official language/dialect.

-----STH becomes ST (E.g. West Greek Damosthenes -> Macedonian Damostenes)
-----IGN becomes IN (E.g. Other Greek Oklignos -> Macedonian Oklinos)
-----/ɔ:/ becomes /o:/ when directly before or after N (E.g. Other Greek Milon, Nikanor -> Macedonian Miloun, Nikanour)
-----Has lost /w/ entirely by the setting in which this language/dialect appears in-game.

-----In-game only occurs after the adoption of the East Ionic script

-----long a preserved
-----Upsilon retains /u/ sound
-----TH/T/D before E often becomes PH/P/B respectively (E.g. Attic Therme, Odomantes, Edessa -> Aeolic Pherma, Odomanpes, Ebessa)
-----RI becomes RE (E.g. Western Greek Damokritos -> Aeolic Damokretos)
-----short /a/ becomes /o/ directly before or after l or r (E.g. Kallistos, Karpos, Erasmos, Philandros -> Aeolic Kollistos, Korpos, Erosmos, Philondros)
-----/a:.e/ contracts into /ɛ:/ (E.g. Hawelios -> Helios after loss of /w/)

-----Specific words/elements:
--------Meta- -> Peda- (E.g. Methodios -> Pedoddios)

-----Thessalian
-----/a:.o/ contracts into just /a:/ (E.g. Wanaxilaos -> Wanaxilas (-> Anaxilas with loss of /w/))
-----Has lost /w/ entirely by the setting in which this dialect appears in-game.
-----PT simplified to TT (E.g. Ptolemaios -> Thessalian Tolemaios)
-----Z becomes D, or DD between vowels (E.g. Zephuros -> Thessalian Dephuros)
-----Consonants are doubled if before I that is in turn before another vowel (E.g. Gennadios -> Thessalian Gennaddios)

-----In-game only occurs in a setting after the adoption of the East Ionic script. However, there is an oddity:
--------Besides writing /e:/ and /o:/ as EI and OU, which is usual in the East Ionic script, Thessalian wrote /ɛ:/ and /ɔ:/ as EI and OU as well, rather than with the usual Eta and Omega. (E.g. Emathia, Piloros, Krestonia -> Thessalian Eimathia, Pilouros, Kreistounnia)

-----Specific words/elements:
--------Apollon -> Aploun (E.g. Apollodoros -> Aplodoros)
--------Polis -> Ptolis, or ttolis if after a vowel (E.g. Amphipolis -> Thessalian Amphittolis)
-------- -kles names -> -kleas (E.g. Sophokles -> Thessalian Sophokleas)

ITALIC LANGUAGES

Originally, Latin was only one of a group of related languages that were spoken through most of Italy. Eventually, Latin was the only one of these languages to survive as it replaced the other ones under Roman rule.
Note that not every language native to Italy was an Italic language. “Italic” is merely the name for a specific family of languages that was the most widespread in ancient Italy.

Italic can be split into two main branches, but there are also a few outlier languages whose exact classification isn’t certain but possibly belong somewhere in the Italic group.
Latino-Faliscan: Latin, Faliscan, and possibly some of the outlier languages as well.
Sabellic/Oscan-Umbrian: Oscan, Umbrian, South Picene, Sabine etc
Outliers: Venetic & the Sicilian languages (Sicel, Elymian & Sicanian) Some or all might have been Italic but they are all very obscure, so no one knows for certain.

General features of all Italic languages

---/bn/ -> /mn/ (E.g. Gaulish Dubnorix -> Latin Dumnorix)

-----Specific names where Italic languages use a different root than other
--------Kurtun -> Corito
--------Kart Hadasht -> Carthago Nova
--------Punic -baal, -kart names -> -bal, -kar (E.g. Hanniba’al, Hamelkart - Hannibal, Hamilcar)
--------Greek -ous/-as city names -> usually -ntum/-ntom (E.g. Greek Sipous, Taras -> Classical Latin Sipontum, Tarentum)
--------Greek -patros/-andros names -> usually -pater/-ander (E.g. Greek Alexandros, Antipatros -> Latin Alexander, Antipater)
--------Greek -/ɔ:n/ names -> usually -/o:/ (E.g. Greek Milon -> Latin Milo)
--------Aphroditia -> Venusia
--------Etruscan Aranth/Aranthur/Arnza -> Arruns, Arrunturius, Arruntulus
--------Etruscan Thefarie -> Tiberius
--------Greek Polydeukes -> Pollux
--------Bevipo -> Salacia
--------Oktodurom -> Ocellum Durii
--------Bocchor -> Pollentia
--------Kale -> Portus Cale
--------Dactonium -> Mons Fortis
--------Hemeroskopeion -> Dianium
--------Kese -> Tarraco
--------Arse -> Saguntum
--------Akra Leuke -> Lucentum
--------Poseidonia -> Paestum/Paistos
--------Many more minor alterations, and too many other changes in Iberian city names to list

---Latin

ALPHABET AND ROMANIZATION

The Latin alphabet is the one we use today so it’s quite straightforward. However, there are a few differences in Archaic Latin.

---Double consonants not notated until the 2nd Century BC, which is later than any of our settings. (E.g. Svlla -> Svla)
---Latin underwent a change in the use of the letter adapted from Greek Digamma (Ϝ) and the representation of /w/, /u/ and /f/ sounds.
--------Originally Digamma (Ϝ) stood for /w/ like in Greek, and the U only for /u/. To express the sound /f/, the Italics used the letter combination ϜH.
In this case, I romanized Digamma as V, U as U. So /w/, /f/, /u/ -> V, VH, U. (E.g. Classical Fronto, Svlla, Pavo = Vhronto, Sula, Pavo)
--------But early on the Latins started using the Digamma just for /f/ on its own, and merged the /w/ sound into the U.
In this case, I romanized Digamma (now the letter F) as F, U as V. So /w/, /f/, /u/ -> V, F, V. (E.g. Classical Fronto, Svlla, Pavo = Fronto, Svla, Pavo)
I ended up using the earliest version only in the 700 BC nameset (Latium mod).
---Latin inherited X (for /ks/) from Greek, but in Archaic Latin often spelled with a redundant S as XS. At the end of a word /ks/ was often spelled without X, as GS. (E.g. Classical Rex, Brixia <- Archaic Regs, Brixsia)
---Latin inherited all of Gamma (C in Latin), Kappa (K) and Qoppa (Q) from Greek, and used them all for the same /k/ sounds.
In Classical Latin only C was commonly used, while Q was only used in QV for /kw/, and K only in the conservative spelling of a few specific words.
But in Archaic Latin all 3 were in common use with different contexts. Q before O and U (like in Archaic Greek), K before A, and C before E and I.
(E.g. Classical Calela, Corbio, Lancia <- Archaic Kalela, Qorbio, Lancia)
---Latin inherited Gamma from Greek but also started using it for /k/, as a result the spelling of /g/ became conflated with /k/ and /g/ could be spelled C, K or Q like /k/.
In the 3rd Century BC they introduced a new letter G to always be used for /g/.
(E.g. earlier Lonqula, Terceste, Alba Lonka -> later Longula, Tergeste, Alba Longa)
Use of G is in 275/225 BC (Pyrrhus and Iberia) settings.
---/kw/ was originally written QO, later QV (E.g. earlier Eqoitios -> later Eqvitios -> Classical Eqvitivs)
---Earliest Latin alphabet had Z, but lost in late 4th Century BC. Reintroduced in 1st Century BC to better express Greek words. (E.g. Greek Zankle -> Latin Zankla -> Sankla -> Zancla).
Loss of Z in 275/225 BC (Pyrrhus and Iberia) settings. The reintroduction is too late for any setting.
---A separate letter Y was invented to represent Eastern/Common Greek /y/-value Upsilon in the 1st C BC (too late for our settings). Until then, /y/-value Upsilon was represented with U (romanized V see above). (E.g. Greek Telys -> Archaic Latin Telvs)
---Theta, Phi and Chi not inherited in Latin alphabet, when representing Greek words the Latins originally just wrote them T, P, C/K/Q. (E.g. Greek Thales, Philokrates, Archimedes -> Tales, Pilokrates, Arcimedes)
In the 1st Century BC they started being represented more sophisticatedly as TH, PH, CH, but this is too late for any of our settings.
---/j/ written i (E.g. Ivlivs/Ivlios/Iulios for Julius)

DECLENSION
-O-stem (names that are usually -us or -um in Classical Latin, -os or -on in Greek)
-----Nominative singular (masc): -os, from late 3rd Century on -us (E.g. Early Marios, late Marius. Greek Alexios -> early Alexios, late Alexius)
Only the Iberia setting is late enough for the late variant.
-----Nominative singular (neut): -om, from late 3rd Century on -um (E.g. Early Beligiom, late Beligium. Greek Peripolion -> early Peripoliom, late Peripolium)
Only the Iberia setting is late enough for the late variant.
-----Nominative plural: Originally -oi, then -ei, then -e then -i (E.g. Greek Lokroi -> Latin Locroi->Locrei->Locre->Locri)
I ended up settling with -oi for the 700, 525 & 400BC namesets, -ei for 275 BC, and -e for 225 BC (Iberia). All settings are too early for -i
-----Genitive plural: -om (with long o), in Classical Latin -orum (E.g. Classical Latin Bagiennorum, Archaic Latin Bagiennom).
The -orum ending is too late for any of our settings.

-A-stem
-----Nominative singular (fem): -a (E.g. Eastern Greek Zankle -> Latin Zancla)
-----Genitive singular: -as, late 3rd Century on -ai, Classical -ae (E.g. “Flaviae” in Aquae Flaviae = early Archaic Flavias, late Archaic Flaviai, Classical Flaviae).
Ended up with -ai only for 225 BC (Iberia), -ae too late for any of our settings.
-----Nominative plural: -ai, Classical -ae (E.g. Classical Latin Pisae-> Archaic Latin Pisai)
-ae too late for any of our settings
-----Genitive plural: Originally -asom, then -arom, then -arum (E.g. Latin Zoelarum/Soilarum).
A name in this case only occurs in the Iberia mod, in which it’s already -arum

-Consonant-stem
-----Genitive plural: -om, then -um (E.g. “Amanum” in Portus Amanum)
Names in this case only occur in the Iberia mod, in which it’s already -um

-I-stem
-----Genitive plural: -ium (E.g. “Blendium” in Portus Blendium)
Names in this case only occur in the Iberia mod, in which it’s already -ium

Other cases/declensions either don’t occur in our names or are the same across all languages, so are omitted to keep things simple.

OTHER

-ALL SETTINGS
---Prehistoric /bʱ/ becomes /f/ word-initially or /b/ otherwise. (E.g. Bhabhios -> Fabios/Fabivs)
---Prehistoric /dʱ/ becomes /f/ word-initially, /b/ if it is near /r/, or /d/ otherwise. (E.g. Gladhrio, Rudhellios, Dhabhrikios -> Glabrio, Rvbellivs, Fabricivs)

-525 BC SET ON (omitted in 700 BC set to retain an “early” feeling closer to Proto-Italic, but not really sure when each change started going into effect)
---Intervocalic /sn/ -> /n/ (E.g. Italic Kasnos -> Latin Kanos -> Canvs)
---/kl/ “dissimilates” to /kr/ if a previous syllable already has /l/ (E.g. Italic Lukletios -> Latin Lvcretios->Lvcretivs)
---Certain word-initial consonant clusters are simplified (E.g. Italic Wlanatos, Smakula -> Latin Lanatos, Maqvla->Lanatvs, Macvla)

-400 BC SET ON (I went with the theory that these changes occurred in the 5th Century BC, but I’m not sure if the date is universally agreed upon)
---Latin vowel reduction, phase 1
-----Short a in non-initial syllables changes to o if before a single consonant b, p, f or m (but not if that consonant is followed by i) and some other contexts not relevant to any in-game name (E.g. earlier Latin Dekamos -> Deqomos)
-----If it doesn’t change to o, short a in non-initial syllables changes to e instead. (E.g. earlier Latin Nvmasios, Agragantom, Tarantom -> Nvmesios, Agregentom, Tarentom)

-275 BC SET ON (Again not sure about exact dates)
---/s/->/r/ between vowels, but not in loanwords or foreign names, only original Latin roots. Also not if there is already an ‘r’ nearby in the word (E.g. Nvmesios, Papisios -> Nvmerios, Papirios. But Caesar not Caerar (nearby r), Asina not Arina (loanword))

-225 BC SET ON (Again not sure about exact dates)
---Latin vowel reduction, phase 2
-----Short o in non-initial syllables changes to u if:
--------Syllable ends in consonant (E.g. all the -os, -om name endings -> -vs, -vm)
--------Before a single consonant b, p, f or m (including short o from original short a) (E.g. original Dekamos -> ~400 BC Deqomos -> ~225 BC Deqvmus)
--------Some other contexts not relevant for any of our names
-----Short e in non-initial syllables becomes short i if before a single consonant (not r) or a vowel, remains e before double consonants or single consonant r (E.g. Agregentom -> Agrigentvm)
---ou and ei monophtongized to long u and long i respectively (E.g. Lovcios, Screibonios -> Lvcivs, Scribonivs)
---There are many other rules that I’m omitting here because they either didn’t occur in any names or the outcome was inconsistent. Believe it or not, this is the simplified version.

---Some Italic general names have Sabellic roots. This is fine for most settings as the Romans early on included Sabine elements, but I decided to replace such names with Latin equivalents in the very earliest (700 BC/Latium mod) setting. A quick rundown:
--------Sabellic Brutus -> Latin Grutus
--------Sabellic Decius -> Latin Decimus (early Dekamos)
--------Sabellic Mamercus -> Latin Marcus
--------Sabellic Petronius -> Latin Quadronius
--------Sabellic Pompilius -> Latin Quinctilius
--------Sabellic Pontius -> Latin Quinctius
--------Sabellic Rufius -> Latin Rubius

-----Faliscan
Faliscan was closely related to Latin, and may even be called a dialect of Latin rather than a separate language.

Currently it only appears in an early 525 BC setting in the Latium mod, by which point many of the features which make Faliscan stand out from Latin had not developed yet. For now, those features are omitted here until I create a later Faliscan set

Differences from Latin (early Faliscan only):
---Prehistoric /bʱ/ and /dʱ/ -> always /f/ like in Sabellic (in Latin they can also be /b/ or /d/). (E.g. prehistoric Tibherios, Bhardha -> Faliscan Tiferios, Farfa (Latin Tiberivs, Farba/Barba)
---N is often omitted in writing if it's at the end of a syllable (including at the end of the word) (E.g. Nomentum, Fronto -> Faliscan Nometom, Froto)
---word-final -ns -> written just as S without the N (E.g. Arvns -> Arvs)
---Entirely lacked the letter B, always wrote P instead (E.g. Alba, Tibur -> Alpa, Tipur)

---Final short -os, -es, -is -> -s (E.g. Marios, Floros, Gurges, Siris -> Maris, Flurs, Gurgs, Sirs)
---Prehistoric /bʱ/ and /dʱ/ -> always /f/ (whereas in Latin they can also be /b/ or /d/). (E.g. prehistoric Tibherios, Bhardha -> Sabellic Tiferis, Farfa (Latin Tiberivs, Farba/Barba))
---Prehistoric /kw/ becomes /p/ (where Latin retains /kw/). (E.g. Latin Equitius -> Sabellic Epitis)
---nd -> nn (E.g. Latin Kassander -> Sabellic Kassanner/Kasaner)
---kt -> ht (E.g. Latin Octavius -> Sabellic Uhtavis)
---pt -> ft (E.g. Greek Ptolemaios -> Oscan Ftulemais)
---ks before another consonant -> simply s (E.g. Latin Sextius -> Sabellic Sestis)
---ns (not if at the end of a word) -> nts (E.g. Latin Pansa -> Sabellic Pantsa/Panza)
---/wo/ -> /u/ (E.g. Latin Volusus -> Sabellic Ulus)
---word-final -ls -> -l (E.g. Greek Neapolis, Latin Romulus -> Sabellic Neapuls, Romuls -> Neapul, Romul)
---In the Late period, word-final -ks -> -ss/-s (E.g. Italic Mamerkos -> Sabellic Mamerks -> Mamers) (Used in 275 BC setting only)

-----Specific names/words/elements
--------Clusium/Klevsin -> Kamars
--------Tarracina -> Anxur
--------Taurania -> Tauriana

---Many Italic general names could be both Latin or Sabellic (if the proper rules are applied on them), but some names were too exclusively Latin and changed to a Sabellic equivalent for the Sabellic factions. An overview (Sabellic rules may then change these names further, these are just the base names):
--------Latin Annalis -> Sabellic Aknalis
--------Latin Appius -> Sabellic Attius
--------Latin Claudius -> Sabellic Clausus
--------Latin Decimus -> Sabellic Decius
--------Latin Dentatus -> Sabellic Duntatus
--------Latin Gratius -> Sabellic Bratius
--------Latin Imperiosus -> Sabellic Embriosus
--------Latin Quadratus -> Sabellic Petratus
--------Latin Quinctius -> Sabellic Pontius
--------Latin Quinctilius -> Sabellic Pompilius
--------Latin Quinctus -> Sabellic Pontus
--------plus a few more minor changes


Includes Sabine, Marsian and Volscian which were all possibly either dialects of Umbrian or closely related to it (they are all rather poorly attested). I ended up using Umbrian for them, but with small variations, so I’m grouping them together here.

ALPHABET AND ROMANIZATION

Umbrian originally used its own alphabet adapted from Etruscan. It would eventually switch to the Latin alphabet, but that didn’t happen until later than any of our timeframes.

---Double consonants not notated. (E.g. Sulla -> Sula)
---Like Latin, Umbrian inherited Digamma (Ϝ, romanized V) and Upsilon/U from Greek for /w/ and /u/, and may have originally used the letter combination ϜH (romanized VH) to express /f/. So originally /w/, /f/, /u/ -> V, VH, U.
I ended up using this earliest version only in the 700 BC namesets (Latium mod).
------Unlike Latin (and more like Etruscan and Oscan), however, Umbrian kept the Digamma as /w/ and U remained only used for /u/. A new letter (originally Etruscan) was brought in for /f/.
So /w/, /f/, /u/ -> V, F, U (where Latin has V, F, V).
In other words, Umbrian keeps a separate U letter so /u/ is Romanized U, not V. (E.g. Latin Svla->Sula)
---/i/ and /u/, when directly before another vowel, were written with an extra symbol representing the /j/ or /w/ sound respectively that naturally occurs in such a combination. (E.g. Bestia, Kapua -> Bestiia, Kapuva)
---Umbrian didn’t inherit Gamma or Qoppa from Greek, and instead just wrote all /k/ and /g/ sound as K. (E.g. Greek Megakles -> Umbrian Mekakles)
---Umbrian entirely lacked the letter O, and had to write U for /o/-sounds instead. (E.g. Greek Kastor -> Umbrian Kastur)
---N and M are often omitted in writing if word-final or before certain other consonants (b, d, p, k, t, s, z & f). (E.g. Empulum, Longula -> Epulu, Lukula)
---H often omitted in writing before T (E.g. Uhtavis->Utavis)
---Umbrian had the letter Z, but used it for the sound /ts/ rather than for /z/. /z/ would presumably just be written with /s/ instead (E.g. Zankla, Avitos -> Sanla, Aviz (with syncope of -os -> -s i.e Avitos->Avits=Aviz)
---Lacked X, so just wrote /ks/ as KS (E.g. Pollux -> Puluks)
---/j/ written i (E.g. Latin Julius (Ivlivs) -> Umbrian Iulis)
---Umbrian had an additional letter, romanized as Ç
---In Umbrian itself (possibly not Sabine, Volscian etc), the letter D at some point came to stand for /rs/ rather than /d/, and /d/ was from then on written T. (E.g. Greek Adranon -> Umbrian Adranu -> Atranu)
Only used this rule on Umbrian proper, and only from 400 BC on.

Representation of foreign sounds:
---Greek /y/-value Upsilon just represented as U
---Greek Theta, Chi, Phi just represented with T, K, P

DECLENSION
-O-stem (names that are usually -us or -um in Classical Latin, -os or -on in Greek)
-----Nominative singular (masc): -s (E.g. Latin Marius, Avitus, Florus -> Umbrian Maris, Aviz, Flurs)
-----Nominative singular (neut): -om, but usually ends up written -u (see alphabet rules) (E.g. Greek Peripolion -> Umbrian Peripuliiu)
-----Nominative plural: -/o:s/ (with long o), written -us (E.g. Latin Carni -> Umbrian Karnus)
-----Genitive plural: -/o:m/ (with long o), but usually ends up written -u (see alphabet rules) (E.g. Classical Latin Bagiennorum, Umbrian Baiienu).

-A-stem
-----Nominative singular (fem): -/a:/ (E.g. Eastern Greek Zankle -> Umbrian Sanla)
-----Nominative plural: -/a:s/ (E.g. Latin Pisae/Pisai -> Umbrian Pisas)

Other cases/declensions either don’t occur in our names or are the same across all languages, so are omitted to keep things simple.

OTHER

---/g/ before /e/, /i/ or /j/ -> /j/ (E.g. Latin Segesta, Mugillae -> Umbrian Seiesta, Muiilas)
---/k/ before /e/, /i/ or /j/, if not directly after /s/ -> an /s/-like sound for which Umbrian uses its special letter Ç (E.g. Latin Ticinvm, Acerrae -> Umbrian Tiçinu, Açeras)
---ae/ai/ei -> long e (E.g. Latin Praeneste/Praineste -> Umbrian Preneste. Proto-Italic Skreibhonios, Greek Timaios -> Sabellic Skreifunis, Timais -> Umbrian Skrefunis, Times)
---au/eu/ou -> long o (written U see alphabet rules) (E.g. Greek Pausanias, Gaulish Teutomaros, Italic Roufios -> Umbrian Pusaniias, Tutumars, Rufis)
---oi -> long o in initial syllables, otherwise long e (E.g. Kloilios, Heroidas -> Umbrian Klulis, Heredas)
---word-final -ns -> -f (E.g. Latin Arruns -> Umbrian Aruf)
---ft -> ht (written just T see alphabet rules) (E.g. Greek Ptolemaios -> Sabellic Ftulemais -> Umbrian Tulemes)
---word-initial gn -> n (E.g. Italic Gnaiwios -> Umbrian Nevis)
---lt -> t (E.g. Latin Altinvm -> Umbrian Atinu)
---nt -> nd (written just D see alphabet rules) (E.g. Morgantina -> Murkadina)
---s between vowels -> r, like in Latin (and, like in Latin, only in the later 275 BC set) (E.g. Italic Numasios -> Umbrian Numaris)

-----Marsian

---ti/tj before another vowel -> ts (written Z) (E.g. Latin Spoletivm -> Umbrian Spuletiiu -> Marsian Spulezu)

-----Volscian

---Initial /l/ -> /j/ (E.g. Leonidas -> Ieunidas)

-----Sabine
Not aware of any specifics for Sabine. Just went with basic Umbrian (minus the Umbrian proper specifics)

-----Umbrian proper

---Initial /l/ -> /w/ (E.g. Leonidas -> Veunidas)
---At some point intervocalic d -> rs (and d-symbol repurposed to rs) (E.g. Veunidas -> Veunirsas)
Only used this rule in 400 BC on

Originally the language of the Samnite area. Then spread across southern Italy as Campania became Oscan and the Lucani, Bruttii, Frentani and Mamertines, all of which were offshoots of the Samnites or Campanians, took the language with them. The game already has Lucani & Bruttii in the 525 BC setting, so they were given Oscan despite Oscan not being spread as far yet around then historically.

ALPHABET AND ROMANIZATION

Oscan originally used its own alphabet adapted from Etruscan. It would eventually switch to the Latin alphabet, but that didn’t happen until later than any of our timeframes.
The southern Oscans (Lucani, Bruttii & Mamertines) adapted a version of the Greek alphabet ~350 BC which they then used instead of the original Oscan one. Specifics of this southern Oscan/Greek alphabet are listed in the South Oscan subsection rather than here.

---Double consonants not notated until ~ the 3rd C BC. (E.g. early Kaburum -> later Kaburrum)
---Also around the 3rd C BC long vowels start being written as double vowels (except long /o:/ remained Ú not ÚÚ) (E.g. early Akeras -> later Akerraas)
---Like Latin, Oscan inherited Digamma (Ϝ, romanized V) and Upsilon/U from Greek for /w/ and /u/, and may have originally used the letter combination ϜH (romanized VH) to express /f/. So originally /w/, /f/, /u/ -> V, VH, U.
I ended up using this earliest version only in the 700 BC namesets (Latium mod).
------Unlike Latin (and more like Etruscan and Umbrian), however, Oscan kept the Digamma as /w/ and U remained only used for /u/. A new letter (originally Etruscan) was brought in for /f/.
So /w/, /f/, /u/ -> V, F, U (where Latin has V, F, V).
In other words, Oscan keeps a separate U letter so /u/ is Romanized U, not V.
---Oscan lacked the letter O, and originally had to write U for /o/-sounds. Later, they added the letter Ú, which usually represented the /o/-sound. (E.g. Greek Kosmas -> Oscan Kusmas -> Kúsmas -> Kúsmaas)
I ended up using the Ú only in settings 400 BC on.
---Oscan originally wrote all /i/-sounds with i, but later added the letter í to differentiate short /i/ (which was probably pronounced differently, more like /ɪ/) from long /i:/. í became used for the short and i for the long /i/. (E.g. Latin Pictor -> Oscan Pihtur -> Píhtúr)
I ended up using the í only in settings 400 BC on.
---Lacked X, so just wrote /ks/ as KS (E.g. Pollux -> Puluks/Púluks)
---In diphthongs au, eu, ou, the second element was written V rather than U (E.g. Latin Auximum -> Oscan Avksimum/Avksímum)
---/i/ and /u/, when directly before another vowel, were written with an extra symbol representing the /j/ or /w/ sound respectively that naturally occurs in such a combination.
The /j/ in this case is written í rather than i (except for when í doesn’t exist yet) (E.g. Bestia, Kapua -> early Oscan Bestiiu, Kapuvu -> later Bestiíú, Kapuvú)
---/j/ written i, except for the /j/ that is the second element of the representation of /i/ before another vowel, in which case it’s written í (See above rule) (E.g. Latin Julius (Ivlivs) -> Oscan Iulis -> Iulís -> Iuulís)
---Oscan, like Umbrian and Etruscan, had the letter Z but used it for the sound /ts/ rather than for /z/. /z/ would presumably just be written with /s/ instead (E.g. Zephyros, Avitos -> Sepurs, Aviz (with syncope of -os -> -s i.e Avitos->Avits=Aviz)
---Oscan didn’t inherit the Qoppa, and unlike Etruscan and Latin it kept using the Gamma only for /g/ rather than conflating it with /k/. So /g/ and /k/ are always just written G and K. (E.g. Archaic Latin Acerai/Qomom -> Oscan Akeras/Kumum)

Representation of foreign sounds:
---Greek /y/-value Upsilon just represented as U
---Greek Theta, Chi, Phi just represented with T, K, P

DECLENSION
-O-stem (names that are usually -us or -um in Classical Latin, -os or -on in Greek)
-----Nominative singular (masc): -s (E.g. Latin Marivs, Avitvs -> Oscan Maris, Aviz -> Marís, Aviz)
-----Nominative singular (neut): -um (E.g. Greek Peripolion -> Oscan Peripuliium -> Perípúliíum)
-----Nominative plural: -/o:s/ (E.g. Classical Latin Carni -> Oscan Karnus -> Karnús)
-----Genitive plural: -/o:m/ (E.g. Classical Latin Bagiennorvm, Oscan Bagiienum -> Bagiíenúm -> Bagiíennúm).

-A-stem
-----Nominative singular (fem): -o (E.g. Greek Medma -> Oscan Medmu -> Medmú)
-----Nominative plural: -/a:s/ (E.g. Classical Latin Acerrae -> Oscan Akeras -> Akerraas)

Other cases/declensions either don’t occur in our names or are the same across all languages, so are omitted to keep things simple.

OTHER

---rs -> r with lengthening of preceding vowel (E.g. Classical Latin Carsioli -> Oscan Kariiulus -> Kariíúlús -> Kaariíúlús)
---word-final -ns -> -ss (E.g. Latin Arruns -> Oscan Arus -> Arruss)
---long e -> short i (í) (E.g. Latin Calela -> Oscan Kalilu -> Kalílú)
---long o -> long u (in Oscan alphabet, in o-stem plural case endings still spelled -ús, -úm (as if they were /o/), probably out of conservatism. But in south Oscan/Greek alphabet spelled like /u/ e.g. -ous, -oum not -os, -om) (E.g. Latin Comum -> Oscan Kumum -> Kuumúm (not Kúmúm))
---Anaptyxis. Anaptyxis is a process in which a consonant cluster is broken up by adding a vowel in the middle, creating an extra syllable.
------Anaptyxis in lk/rk/lg/rg/lh/rh/lb/rb/lp/rp/lf/rf/lw/rw/lm/rm in which the added vowel is the same as the last vowel before the consonant cluster. (E.g. Hamilkar, Arx, Morgantina, Baalhanno, Balbus, Adherbal -> Oscan Hamilikar, Araks, Murugantinu, Balahanu, Balabs, Adherebal -> Hamílíkar, Arass, Múrúgantínú, Baalahannuu, Balabs, Adherebaal)
------Anaptyxis in tr/dr/kr/fr/kl/tn/kn/mn/fn in which the added vowel is the same as the first vowel after the consonant cluster. (E.g. Trebula, Hadria, Krimisa -> Oscan Tiribulu, Hadiriiu, Kirimisu -> Tíríbulú, Haadíriíú, Kírímísú)
---short e before another vowel -> short i (í) (but unlike normal short i, this one doesn’t get written with a second symbol representing the /j/, so í not ií) (E.g. Leonidas -> Oscan Líunídas -> Líuunídaas)
---final -om with short o -> um (therefore written -um not -úm) (see o-stem nominative singular neuter declension)
---/u/ after t/d/s/n -> /ju/ (E.g. Syracusae -> Oscan Siurakusas -> Siuraakuusaas)
---consonants double before /j/ (E.g. Anxanum -> Oscan Anksanium -> Anksaannium)
---s doubles before t (E.g. Segesta -> Oscan Segestu -> Segesstú)

-----Southern Oscan
Lucani, Bruttii and Mamertines, but only in the 275 BC setting as in earlier settings they haven’t adopted the Greek alphabet yet (insofar as Lucani, Bruttii and Mamertines even existed in earlier settings)

Alphabet

The southern Oscans (Lucani, Bruttii & Mamertines) adapted a version of the Greek alphabet ~350 BC which they used instead of the original Oscan one.

---Like Greek, double consonants are notated (like contemporary Oscan), long vowels aren’t written double (unlike contemporary Oscan). (E.g. Early Oscan Akeras -> Late Oscan Akerraas/South Oscan Akerras)
---South Oscan was like archaic Greek in that it still had /h/-value Eta and Digamma for /w/. The South Oscans added a new letter for /f/. So /w/, /f/ are like Oscan but I like to use W rather than V for the Greek-style digamma.
---Like Greek and unlike Oscan, South Oscan just has a letter O. (E.g. Oscan Segesstú, South Oscan Segessto)
---Long u and long o are written OU. (E.g. Oscan Siuraakuusaas, South Oscan Siurakousas)
---short /i/ (/ɪ/), which is í in Oscan is written EI in South Oscan. Except if it’s immediately before another vowel, in which case it’s IE (E.g. Oscan Fírímum, Staliíú, South Oscan Feireimum, Stalieo)
---/j/ written i (E.g. Latin Julius (Ivlivs) -> South Oscan Iouleis)
---Had X unlike Oscan (E.g. Oscan Anaksiilaas, South Oscan Anaxilas)
---In diphthongs au, eu, ou, the second element was written W rather than U (unlike Greek and more like Oscan) (E.g. Latin Auximum -> Oscan Avksímum, South Oscan Awxeimum)

Other
---lj/rj/tj/dj/kj -> ll/rr/s/z/ks (E.g. Oscan Buksenttium, South Oscan Buxensum)

Two languages, North Picene and South Picene, have been attested in the Picentes area, but North Picene AFAIK hasn’t been deciphered so the obvious choice is to go with South Picene for the Picentes instead.

ALPHABET AND ROMANIZATION

---Double consonants not notated. (E.g. Sulla -> Sula)
---Like Umbrian and Oscan (and unlike Latin), Picene kept Digamma for /w/ and added a new separate letter for /f/, keeping Upsilon/U only for /u/.
So /w/, /f/, /u/ -> V, F, U (where Latin has V, F, V).
In other words, Picene keeps a separate U letter so /u/ is Romanized U, not V. (E.g. Latin Svla->Sula)
---/w/ when between vowels was written U rather than V (E.g. Latin Ravenna -> Picene Rauena)
---/i/ and /u/, when directly before another vowel, were written with an extra symbol representing the /j/ or /w/ sound respectively that naturally occurs in such a combination. (E.g. Bestia, Kapua -> Bestiia, Kapuua)
---Unlike Umbrian and Oscan, Picene did have a letter O. (E.g. Greek Heloros -> Umbrian Helurs, Picene Helors)
---Unlike Umbrian and Oscan, Picene inherited all of Gamma, Qoppa and Kappa from Greek, presumably using them like in Greek (Gamma for /g/, Qoppa for /k/ before /o/ or /u/, Kappa for /k/ otherwise) (E.g. Greek Suraqosai, Agapios -> Umbrian Surakusas, Akapis = Picene Suraqosas, Agapis)
---Unlike Umbrian and Oscan, Picene did not at all have a letter Z. So /z/ value Z (as Z was used in Greek) was just written S and /ts/ value Z (as Z was used in Oscan/Umbrian) was just written TS. (E.g. Greek Zankla, Umbrian Aviz -> Picene Sankla, Auits)
---Lacked X, so just wrote /ks/ as KS (E.g. Pollux -> Poluks)
---/j/ written i (E.g. Latin Julius (Ivlivs) -> Picene Iulis)

Representation of foreign sounds:
---Greek /y/-value Upsilon just represented as U
---Greek Theta, Chi, Phi just represented with T, K, P

DECLENSION
-O-stem (names that are usually -us or -um in Classical Latin, -os or -on in Greek)
-----Nominative singular (masc): -s (E.g. Latin Marius, Avitus, Florus -> Picene Maris, Auits, Flors)
-----Nominative singular (neut): -om (E.g. Greek Peripolion -> Picene Peripoliiom)
-----Nominative plural: -/o:s/ (with long o) (E.g. Latin Carni -> Picene Karnos)
-----Genitive plural: -/o:m/ (with long o) (E.g. Classical Latin Bagiennorum, Picene Bagiienom).

-A-stem
-----Nominative singular (fem): -/a:/ (E.g. Eastern Greek Zankle -> Picene Sankla)
-----Nominative plural: -/a:s/ (E.g. Latin Pisae/Pisai -> Picene Pisas)

Other cases/declensions either don’t occur in our names or are the same across all languages, so are omitted to keep things simple.

OTHER

---word-final -ns -> -f like in Umbrian (E.g. Latin Arruns -> Picene Aruf)
---nd -> d (E.g. Greek Andreas -> Picene Adreas)
---ae/ai/ei/au/eu/ou/oi monophthongize to long e/e/e/o/o/o/e respectively in final syllables (E.g. Nereus -> Neros)
---Initial /l/ -> /w/ like in Umbrian Proper (E.g. Leonidas -> Veonidas)

---Specific words/elements
-----Italic Valesios (Latin Valerius) -> Velesis


Pre-Samnite is a catch-all term used for various inscriptions found in Campania that were from a time before Oscan was widely spoken there. It is unknown if they represent a single language, but for our purposes it’s treated as such. It’s all very poorly attested regardless.

ALPHABET AND ROMANIZATION

Used Oscan alphabet, see Oscan section.

DECLENSION
Presumed the most basic version of Sabellic declension, as in South Picene. See South Picene section.

OTHER

---ae/ai/ei/au/eu/ou/oi monophthongize to long e/e/e/o/o/o/e respectively in final syllables, like in Picene? (E.g. Nereus -> Neros)

---Specific words/elements
-----Italic Valesios (Latin Valerius) -> Volesis

Venetic (not to be confused with modern Venetian) is a language of uncertain classification, but nowadays the idea that it was an Italic language or at least closely related seems the most commonly accepted, and I decided to treat it as such.

ALPHABET AND ROMANIZATION

---Double consonants not notated. (E.g. Sulla -> Sula)
---Like Umbrian, Oscan and Etruscan, Venetic kept Digamma for /w/ and Upsilon for /u/. Unlike them, however, Venetic seems to have kept the spelling VH for /f/, rather than using the new letter for it.
So /w/, /f/, /u/ -> V, VH, U (like other languages have in 700 BC/Latium mod) (E.g. Latin Fronto -> Vhronto)
---/i/ and /j/ before a vowel were written ii. (E.g. Pausanias, Jullus -> Pausaniias, Iiulos/Iiuls)
---Unlike Umbrian, Oscan and Etruscan (and more like Picene) Venetic did have a letter O. (E.g. Greek Heloros -> Venetic Heloros -> Eloros)
---Venetic had separate letters for /k/ and /g/, but didn’t inherit Greek Qoppa. So, like Oscan, /k/ and /g/ always written K and G respectively. (E.g. Archaic Latin Acerai/Qomom -> Venetic Akerai/Komon)
---Unlike Umbrian, Oscan and Etruscan, Venetic did not at all have a letter Z. So /z/ value Z (as Z was used in Greek) was just written S and /ts/ value Z (as Z was used in Oscan/Umbrian) was just written TS. (E.g. Greek Zankla, Umbrian Aviz -> Venetic Sankla, Avits)
---kt and ks were written GT and GS respectively (the alphabet lacked X) (E.g. Pollux, Calacte -> Polugs, Kalagte)
---Venetic had a separate symbol for /ts/, usually romanized as Ś. However, Hegemony’s strategy map font doesn’t accept Ś so I just romanized it as TS.

Representation of foreign sounds:
---Greek /y/-value Upsilon just represented as U
---Greek Theta, Chi, Phi just represented with T, K, P

DECLENSION
-O-stem (names that are usually -us or -um in Classical Latin, -os or -on in Greek)
-----Nominative singular (masc): -os or -s (E.g. Latin Marius, Avitus, Florus -> Venetic Maris, Avitos, Vhloros)
-----Nominative singular (neut): -on (E.g. Greek Peripolion -> Venetic Peripoliion)
-----Nominative plural: unknown, used -oi as a guess (E.g. Latin Carni -> Venetic Karnoi)
-----Genitive plural: unknown, used -/o:n/ (with long o) as a guess (E.g. Classical Latin Bagiennorum, Venetic Bagiienon).

-A-stem
-----Nominative singular (fem): -/a:/ (E.g. Eastern Greek Zankle -> Venetic Sankla)
-----Nominative plural: unknown, used -ai as a guess (E.g. Latin Pisae/Pisai -> Venetic Pisai)

Other cases/declensions either don’t occur in our names or are the same across all languages, so are omitted to keep things simple.

OTHER

--- -ios endings -> -is (E.g. Pontios -> Pontis)
--- final -ns, s after a vowel after another s, st, ps -> -ts (E.g. Arruns, Misos, Kastor, Vipsanius -> Aruts, Misots, Katsor, Vitsanis)
---word final -m or m before certain consonants -> n (E.g. Olympos, Ticinom -> Olunpos, Tikinon)
---Prehistoric /bʱ/ becomes /f/ word-initially or /b/ otherwise, like Latin. (E.g. Bhabhios -> Vhabis)
---Prehistoric /dʱ/ becomes /f/ word-initially, /b/ if it is near /r/, or /d/ otherwise, like Latin. (E.g. Gladhrio, Rudhellios, Dhabhrikios -> Glabriio, Rubelis, Vhabrikis)
---/h/ lost in the 5th Century BC (in 400 BC set on) (E.g. earlier Helenos -> later Elenos)
---from the 3rd Century BC (only in 275 BC set) -os and -is (including -is from earlier -ios) -> just -s (E.g. Pontios, Helenos -> earlier Venetic Pontis, Elenos -> late Venetic Ponts, Elens)
---from the 3rd Century BC (only in 275 BC set) ti -> ts (E.g. Nesactium -> earlier Venetic Nesagtiion -> late Venetic Nesagtson)


Elymian and Sicanian are so poorly known that I decided to use Sicel for them as well.
However, even Sicel is very poorly known and my set is likely not very accurate.
Sicel might have been Italic, possibly closer to Latin than to Sabellic.
I ended up using just basic Italic, with early Latin declensions and Latin rendition of prehistoric bh, dh, with no further specific rules.

ALPHABET AND ROMANIZATION

Used a Greek-adapted alphabet, like early Euboean. See Greek alphabet rules.

DECLENSION

I went with a basic early Latin declension, works out to be the same as Venetic. See Venetic declension rules.

OTHER
---Prehistoric /bʱ/ becomes /f/ word-initially or /b/ otherwise, like Latin. (E.g. Bhabhios -> Phabios)
---Prehistoric /dʱ/ becomes /f/ word-initially, /b/ if it is near /r/, or /d/ otherwise, like Latin. (E.g. Gladhrio, Rudhellios, Dhabhrikios -> Glabrio, Rubelios, Phabrikios)

ETRUSCAN

Etruscan isn’t a very well known language, so the differences with Greek/Latin names are mainly orthographical.

ALPHABET AND ROMANIZATION

The Etruscan alphabet is directly adapted from Greek. It had 2 main phases:

Archaic Etruscan alphabet (700 and 525 BC settings)

---Double consonants not notated (E.g. Sulla -> Sula)
---Like Latin, Etruscan inherited Digamma (Ϝ, romanized V) and Upsilon/U from Greek for /w/ and /u/, and may have originally used the letter combination ϜH (romanized VH) to express /f/. So originally /w/, /f/, /u/ -> V, VH, U.
I ended up using this earliest version only in the 700 BC nameset (Latium mod).
------Unlike Latin however, Etruscan kept the Digamma as /w/ and U remained only used for /u/. A new letter was invented for /f/.
So /w/, /f/, /u/ -> V, F, U (where Latin has V, F, V).
In other words, Etruscan keeps a separate U letter so /u/ is Romanized U, not V. (E.g. Latin Svla->Sula)
---Etruscan didn’t have any /o/ sounds, so the Omicron/O was dropped early on
---Etruscan didn’t have any /b/, /d/ so the letters B, D were dropped early on
---Etruscan originally inherited all of Gamma, Kappa and Qoppa from Greek. Not having any /g/ sound, Gamma (romanized C in Etruscan context) came to stand for /k/ as well, alongside Kappa and Qoppa.
C, K and Q were used the same way as in early Latin, were K is used before A, Q before U, and C before E and I (E.g. Classical Latin Calela, Corbio, Aricia -> Archaic Etruscan Kalela, Qurpiu, Aricia)
---Like Oscan, Etruscan wrote the second element of diphthongs /au/, /eu/, /ou/ as V rather than U (E.g. Tauros -> Tavre)
---Unlike the Italic languages, Etruscan did inherit Theta, Phi and Chi from Greek so it writes them the same as Greek. (E.g. Greek Methodios, Nikaphoros, Eutychios -> Archaic Latin Metodios, Nikaporos, Evtuvcios = Etruscan Methutie, Nikaphure, Evtuchie)
---Etruscan had the letter Z but used it for the sound /ts/ rather than for /z/. /z/ would presumably just be written as /s/ instead
---/j/ written i (E.g. Latin Julius (Ivlivs) -> Iulie)

Neo-Etruscan alphabets (400 and 275 BC settings)

---Like Archaic Etruscan, but the writing of /k/ sounds is simplified.
In the south, K and Q are dropped and C is used for all /k/ sounds.
In the north, C and Q are dropped and K is used for all /k/ sounds.
(E.g. Archaic Etruscan Kalela, Qunsentia, Aricia, Cemele -> Southern Neo-Etruscan (with syncope) Cala, Cunsntha, Cemle = Northern Kala, Kunsntha, Kemle)


Representation of foreign sounds:
---Greek /y/-value Upsilon just represented as U
---/o/, /ɔ/ also represented as U since Etruscan dropped the letter O
---/b/, /d/ represented as P, T since Etruscan dropped B, D (E.g. Greek Ambrosios, Medma -> Etruscan Amprusie, Metma)
---/g/ represented as a /k/ sound, meaning it can be C, K or Q depending on context (like in early Archaic Latin) (E.g. Gobanitio -> Archaic Etruscan Qupanitio -> Northern Neo-Etruscan (with syncope) Kuphnthu, Southern Cuphnthu)

DECLENSION
Etruscan isn’t Indo-European, so following the stem/case system of Greek/Italic/Celtic doesn’t really make sense. However, there were some basic patterns in how certain Latin name endings manifest in Etruscan, and Etruscan does have a known plural and genitive.

---Latin/Greek masculine singular -us/-os/-es/-as/-eus names usually render in Etruscan as -e (E.g. Marcus -> Marce)
---Latin/Greek neuter singular -on/-om/-um/-ion/-iom/-ium names, as well as a-stem names in -a/-ae/-ai/-as usually render in Etruscan as -a (E.g. Asisium -> Asisa/Asa)
---Latin/Greek masculine plural -i/-oi/-ei names usually render as -i (E.g. Lokroi -> Lukri/Lucri)
---but -tius/-tios/-tus/-tos/-tium/-tum/-tiom/-tom/-tion/-ton names usually appear as -th (E.g. Curtius, Nesactium -> Qurth/Curth/Kurth, Nesacth)

---Masculine plural was -ar? (E.g. Carsioli -> Karsiular)
---Genitive plural was -eras? (E.g. Bagiennorum -> Pacieneras)

OTHER

All settings
---no difference between long and short vowels
---ks -> s (E.g. Anxanum -> Ansana -> Ansna)
---k after n/m/r/l -> ch (E.g. Zankla -> Sanchla)

400 BC on
---Loss (syncope) of vowels except for in the first syllable or at the very end of the word. The result may involve weird unpronounceable-appearing consonant clusters which may still have had faint vowel sounds that were just not written down. (E.g. Velatheri, Unasiphure -> Velthri, Unsphre)
------If a vowel sound was lost after /p/, /t/, /k/, they may become PH, TH, CH respectively (E.g. Vataluna, Apelina, Suraqusai -> Vathlna, Aphlna, Surchse)
---i -> e if next syllable has a or e (E.g. Silva -> Selva)
---ai -> ei (E.g. Aimilie -> Eimle)
---ei before /w/ or /u/ -> e (E.g. Cnaive -> Cneive -> Cneve)
---In Northern Etruscan only, /f/ may become /h/ (E.g. Archaic Etruscan Fiqule -> Southern Neo-Etruscan Fichle, Northern Hichle)

-----Specific names where Etruscan uses a different root than other
--------Pisai -> Peithusa
--------Vetulonium -> Vataluna
--------Veii -> Veis
--------Volaterrae -> Velatheri
--------Volsinii -> Velzina
--------Caere -> Kaisra
--------Clusium -> Klevsin
--------Vulci/Olkion -> Velchal
--------Tarquinii -> Tarchuna
--------Faesulai -> Viesul
--------Anagnia -> Fanacni
--------Arretium -> Aritim
--------Bergomum -> Perkumsna
--------Firmum Picenum -> Permu
--------Ticinum -> Pauia
--------Vicetia -> Berua
--------Greek Polydeukes -> Pultuce

CELTIC LANGUAGES

Gaulish, Lepontic, and the Hispano-Celtic languages.

General features:

---eu -> ou (E.g. Greek Zaleukos -> Celtic Zaloukos/Salovkos)
---ei, except for in the last syllable of a word -> long e (E.g. Teitebas -> Tetebas)
---long o -> long u in the final syllable of a word or long a otherwise (E.g. Latin Cato, Greek Zotikos -> Celtic Katu/Katou/Katv, Zatikos/Satikos)

-----Specific names where Celtic uses a different root than other
--------Senagallia -> Sena


Gaulish can broadly be split into Cisalpine (modern northern Italy) and Transalpine (modern France) varieties. Further dialectical divisions aren’t well enough attested.

DECLENSION
-O-stem (names that are usually -us or -um in Classical Latin, -os or -on in Greek)
-----Nominative singular (masc): -os (E.g. Latin Marius -> Gaulish Marios)
-----Nominative singular (neut): -on (E.g. Hispano-Celtic Beligiom, Latin Beligivm -> Gaulish Beligion)
-----Nominative plural: -oi (E.g. Latin Carsioli -> Gaulish Karsioloi)
-----Genitive plural: -on (E.g. Classical Latin Lapatiancorum, Gaulish Lapatiankon).

-A-stem
-----Nominative singular (fem): -a (E.g. Eastern Greek Zankle -> Gaulish Sankla/Zankla)
-----Genitive singular: -as (E.g. “Flaviae” in Aquae Flaviae = Transalpine Gaulish Plaouias).
-----Nominative plural: -as (E.g. Classical Latin Pisae -> Gaulish Pisas)
-----Genitive plural: -anom (E.g. Latin Zoelarum -> Transalpine Gaulish Zoilanom).

-Consonant-stem
-----Genitive plural: -on (E.g. Latin Portus Amanum -> Gaulish Portos Amanon)

-I-stem
-----Genitive plural: -iom (E.g. Latin Portus Blendium -> Transalpine Gaulish Portos Blendiom)

Other cases/declensions either don’t occur in our names or are the same across all languages, so are omitted to keep things simple.

OTHER
---st/ds/dz -> ts (written TH in Transalpine, Z in Cisalpine) (E.g. Greek Ariston -> Gaulish Arithon/Arizon)
---long vowels shortened before final -n (final /-o:n/ with long o therefore avoids the Celtic long o -> long u rule and becomes /-on/ rather than /-u:n/) (E.g. Greek Solon -> Gaulish Solon, Hispano-Celtic Solun)
---ps -> x (E.g. Latin Vipsanius -> Gaulish Ouixanios/Vixanios)
---kt/gt -> xt (E.g. Latin Pictor -> Gaulish Pixtor)

---Transalpine Gaulish
In-game only used by Invader-mode only factions of the Iberia mod.

ALPHABET AND ROMANIZATION

Transalpine Gaulish, insofar as the Gauls had writing, used an alphabet adapted from the Greeks of Massalia.

---The Greek alphabet adapted was a later version in which digamma was already lost and Upsilon already stood for /y/. So /y/ appears in Transalpine Gaulish as Y, /u/ and /w/ both appear in Transalpine Gaulish as OU. (E.g. Greek Myron, Latin Durmius, Gavius -> Transalpine Gaulish Myron, Dourmios, Gaouios)
---The Greek alphabet the Gauls adapted also no longer had a symbol for /h/, so Transalpine Gaulish couldn’t write it. (E.g. Archaic Greek Helenos -> Gaulish Elenos)
---The Gaulish alphabet adopted Greek Theta and Chi, but not Phi.
---Theta was used to represent /ts/ (E.g. Greek Aristarchos -> Gaulish Aritsarchos -> written in Transalpine Gaulish as Aritharchos)
---long /i:/ was written EI (E.g. Latin Atilius -> Transalpine Gaulish Ateilios)
---Like Greek it had a symbol X for /ks/ and Z for /z/
---/j/ written i (E.g. Latin Julius (Ivlivs) -> Transalpine Gaulish Ioulios)

Representation of foreign sounds:
---Greek Phi just represented with P
---/f/ represented with P

---Cisalpine Gaulish
Cisalpine Gaulish may actually have just been a later phase of Lepontic rather than a separate language, but this isn’t certain.
For the purposes of differentiating the Ligures (who were given Lepontic as a compromise due to not knowing enough about Ligurian proper) from the Gauls, I treated them as separate languages.
Cisalpine Gaulish and Lepontic do share many features however, and the resulting names are often the same.

ALPHABET AND ROMANIZATION
Used Lugano alphabet, see the Alphabet and Romanization section of Lepontic.

OTHER
--nd -> n (E.g. Greek Kassandros -> Cisalpine Gaulish Kasanros)
--nt -> t (E.g. Greek Antigonos -> Cisalpine Gaulish Atikonos)


One of the oldest known Celtic languages, spoken in parts of the Alps. In-game used for Ligures due a lack of information on the actual Ligurian language and speculation that it may have been related to Lepontic.

ALPHABET AND ROMANIZATION

Lepontic used the Lugano alphabet, also used by the Cisalpine Gauls.

---Double consonants not notated (E.g. Sulla -> Sula)
---Inherited /w/-value Digamma (Romanized V) and /u/-value Upsilon (U). /f/ doesn’t normally occur in Celtic, but in Lepontic there’s apparently sometimes a sound derived from earlier /p/ that’s written V. The fact that it’s written V, not P, has lead to speculation that it was a sound similar to /f/.
Based on that, we use the Digamma-derived letter (Romanized V) for /f/ as well.
So /w/, /f/, /u/ -> V, V, U (E.g. Sabellic Farfa -> Varva)
---Lacked a symbol for /h/, which is just not written (E.g. Archaic Greek Helenos -> Gaulish Elenos)
---Didn’t inherit Beta, Gamma, Delta or Qoppa. So both /g/ and /k/ are always written K, both /d/ and /t/ are written T, and both /b/ and /p/ are written P. (E.g. Ambrosios, Gemellos, Damianos -> Amprosios, Kemelos, Tamianos)
---Like Etruscan, Oscan and Umbrian it had the letter Z but used it for the sound /ts/ rather than for /z/. /z/ would presumably just be written as /s/ instead. (E.g. Zenobios -> Senopios. Greek Aristarchos -> Gaulish Aritsarchos -> written in Cisalpine Gaulish as Arizarkos)
---/j/ written i (E.g. Latin Julius (Ivlivs) -> Iulios)
---The alphabet did have a symbol X for /ks/ (E.g. Sextos not Sekstos)

Representation of foreign sounds:
---Greek /y/-value Upsilon just represented as U
---Greek Theta, Chi, Phi just represented with T, K, P

DECLENSION
-O-stem (names that are usually -us or -um in Classical Latin, -os or -on in Greek)
-----Nominative singular (masc): -os (E.g. Latin Marius -> Lepontic Marios)
-----Nominative singular (neut): -om (E.g. Gaulish Peripolion -> Lepontic Peripoliom)
-----Nominative plural: -oi (E.g. Latin Carsioli -> Lepontic Karsioloi)
-----Genitive plural: -om (E.g. Classical Latin Bagiennorum -> Lepontic Pakienom).

-A-stem
-----Nominative singular (fem): -a (E.g. Eastern Greek Zankle -> Lepontic Sankla)
-----Nominative plural: -as (E.g. Classical Latin Pisae -> Lepontic Pisas)

Other cases/declensions either don’t occur in our names or are the same across all languages, so are omitted to keep things simple.

OTHER
---st/ds/dz -> ts like in Gaulish (written Z) (E.g. Greek Ariston -> Lepontic Arizon)
---long vowels shortened before final -n or -m as in Gaulish (long o in that context thus avoids becoming long u because it became short o instead) (E.g. Greek Solon -> Lepontic Solon, Hispano-Celtic Solun)
--nd -> n as in Cisalpine Gaulish (E.g. Greek Kassandros -> Lepontic Kasanros)
--nt -> t as in Cisalpine Gaulish (E.g. Greek Antigonos -> Lepontic Atikonos)

The Celtic languages in Iberia are all poorly known, I ended up sharing a lot of known peculiarities from Celtiberian across all Celtic languages in Spain, which may not really be accurate but at least gave me a workable set of rules.

DECLENSION
-O-stem (names that are usually -us or -um in Classical Latin, -os or -on in Greek)
-----Nominative singular (masc): -os (E.g. Latin Marius -> Hispano-Celtic Marios)
-----Nominative singular (neut): -om (E.g. Gaulish Beligion, Latin Beligivm -> Hispano-Celtic Beligiom/Belikiom)
-----Nominative plural: -oi (E.g. Latin Artigi -> Hispano-Celtic Artigoi/Artikoi)
-----Genitive plural: -um (E.g. Classical Latin Igaeditanorum, Hispano-Celtic Igaiditanum/Ikaititanum).

-A-stem
-----Nominative singular (fem): -a (E.g. Eastern Greek Rhode -> Hispano-Celtic Roda)
-----Genitive singular: -as (E.g. “Flaviae” in Aquae Flaviae -> Hispano-Celtic Balauias).
-----Nominative plural: -as (E.g. Classical Latin Aquae-> Hispano-Celtic Akuas)
-----Genitive plural: -aum (E.g. Latin Zoelarum -> Hispano-Celtic Zoilaum).

-Consonant-stem
-----Genitive plural: -um (E.g. Latin Portus Amanum -> Hispano-Celtic Bortos Amanum)

-I-stem
-----Genitive plural: -izum (E.g. Latin Portus Blendium -> Hispano-Celtic Bortos Belendizum)

Other cases/declensions either don’t occur in our names or are the same across all languages, so are omitted to keep things simple.

OTHER

---gt/kt -> t (E.g. Dactonium -> Datoniom/Tatoniom)
---nt -> nd (E.g. Buntalos -> Bundalos)

---Celtiberian
Celtiberian was a language mainly attested only from the Celts in northeastern Spain, but in-game I ended up using it as a catch-all for all Celts of Spain (except the Vettones and Gallaeci, for which I could find a little bit of information about their languages), by lack of more specific information for those other Celts.

ALPHABET AND ROMANIZATION

Celtiberian had two known alphabet varieties, a Western and Eastern type. Both are adapted from northeastern Iberian with minor differences.

The in-game use of Celtiberian also extends to the Celts of southwestern Iberia (Celtici/Turduli) who probably used the Tartessian/southwest Iberian alphabet instead, see the “alphabet and romanization” section of Tartessian.

---West Celtiberian

---Like the northeastern and southeastern Iberian scripts, the West Celtiberian symbols for /b/, /g/, /d/, /k/ and /t/ had syllabic values (somewhat similar to Japanese writing systems).
This means they had no individual symbols for just the consonants /b/, /g/, /d/, /k/, /t/ but instead “combined” symbols, standing at once for the consonant (/b/, /g/, /d/, /k/ or /t/) and the subsequent vowel (/a/, /e/, /i/, /o/ or /u/) for a total of 25 symbols.
(E.g. no symbol for just /b/, but 5 different symbols for combined /ba/, /be/, /bi/, /bo/ and /bu/).

Due to the lack of a symbol for the consonant just on its own, when a /b/, /g/, /d/, /k/ or /t/ was directly in front of a consonant they were still forced to use one of the combined consonant-vowel symbols even though there was no vowel really there. The version of the symbol chosen would then usually depend on the next vowel in the word.
(E.g. Kart, Bolvax, Abedera, Dactonium, Septimanca, Iltrida, -briga endings -> Karta, Boluakas, Abedera, Dakotoniom, Sebitimanka, Iltirida, -biriga)
However, other consonants (/r/, /l/, /s/, /z/, /m/, /n/) did not have syllabic values, and there were also separate symbols for just the 5 vowels on their own.

---Double consonants ignored (E.g. Sulla -> Sula)
---Like the Iberian scripts it lacked a symbol for /p/, which is written B (E.g. Pausanias -> Bausanias)
---Adapted an unused Iberian /s/ symbol as Z (E.g. Archaic Greek Zosimos -> Zasimos not Sasimos)
---no symbol for /h/ which isn’t written (E.g. Archaic Greek Helenos -> Elenos)
---/w/ is written as U (E.g. Segovia -> Segouia)
---/j/ is written as i (E.g. Latin Julius (Ivlivs) -> Iulios)

Representation of foreign sounds:
---Greek /y/-value Upsilon just represented as U
---Greek Theta, Chi, Phi just represented with T, K, B
---Latin /f/ is represented with B (E.g. Fimbria -> Bimbiria)

---East Celtiberian

---Same as West Celtiberian, but didn’t differentiate /d/ and /g/ from /t/ and /k/ respectively. (E.g. West Celtiberian Beligiom, Durmios -> East Celtiberian Belikiom, Turmios)

---Gallaecian

Alphabet and Romanization

AFAIK no indigenous writing has ever been attested, so I just ended up using the Western Celtiberian script as it was the geographically closest indigenous script. See “Alphabet and Romanization” section of Celtiberian.

OTHER
--lw/rw -> lb/rb (E.g. Latin Calvinus, Corvus -> Kalbinos, Korbos)
--/g/ lost before e or i (E.g. Segisamos -> Seisamos)

---Vettonian

Alphabet and Romanization

Like Gallaecian, I just ended up using the Western Celtiberian script. See “Alphabet and Romanization” section of Celtiberian.

OTHER
--/kw/ -> /gw/ (E.g. Arcilaquis -> Arkilaguis)

OTHER INDO-EUROPEAN LANGUAGES IN IBERIA

The classification of these languages is uncertain, but they were probably Indo-European and possibly related to Celtic. Very few details about them are known.

This group includes Lusitanian and the Tartessian/Turdetanian language of southwestern Iberia. They might not necessarily belong in a group together, but due to the lack of information I ended up treating them very similarly so I’m just grouping them together for convenience here.

ALPHABET AND ROMANIZATION

The Tartessian aka southwest Iberian alphabet is largely deciphered, though there is still uncertainty about certain symbols. So this interpretation is possibly not entirely correct.

AFAIK no Lusitanian has ever been found in an indigenous alphabet, so it’s unknown what if any alphabet they used. I ended up using the Tartessian alphabet for them as well, and as noted earlier it’s also used for the southwesternmost Celts (see the Celtiberian section).

---Though the Tartessian script, like the Iberian and Celtiberian scripts, also used different symbols for /b/, /t/ and /p/ depending on the subsequent vowel, but unlike them the vowel was written separately and not merged into the consonant symbol itself.
In this case the use of the different symbols was less like Japanese, and more like how early Etruscan and Latin varied between C, K and Q depending on the next vowel.
As such, I decided not to romanize them with an added vowel in preconsonantal position, unlike in Iberian and Celtiberian. (E.g. Briga -> just Brika, not Birika)
---Double consonants ignored (E.g. Sulla -> Sula)
---No symbols for /p/, /d/ and /g/, which are written B, T and K respectively.
---Unlike other Iberian scripts, Tartessian may have had a symbol for /h/ (not certain, but I ran with it for variety) (E.g. Archaic Greek Helenos -> Helenos, other Iberian Elenos)
---Also may have had a symbol for /z/ (also not certain) (E.g. Archaic Greek Zosimos -> Zosimos not Sosimos)
---/w/ is written as U (E.g. Segovia -> Sekouia)
---/j/ is written as i (E.g. Latin Julius (Ivlivs) -> Iulios)

Representation of foreign sounds:
---Greek /y/-value Upsilon just represented as U
---Greek Theta, Chi, Phi just represented with T, K, B
---Latin /f/ is represented with B (E.g. Fimbria -> Bimbria)

DECLENSION
AFAIK nothing is really known about the declension of these languages. I ended up just improvising a vaguely Celtic set that is somewhat closer to primitive Indo-European. It’s probably not accurate in all places.

-O-stem (names that are usually -us or -um in Classical Latin, -os or -on in Greek)
-----Nominative singular (masc): -os (E.g. Latin Marius -> Marios)
-----Nominative singular (neut): -om (E.g. Gaulish Beligion, Latin Beligivm -> Belikiom)
-----Nominative plural: -oi (E.g. Latin Artigi -> Artikoi)
-----Genitive plural: -om (E.g. Classical Latin Igaeditanorum -> Ikaititanom).

-A-stem
-----Nominative singular (fem): -a (E.g. Eastern Greek Rhode -> Roda)
-----Genitive singular: -as (E.g. “Flaviae” in Aquae Flaviae -> Blauias).
-----Nominative plural: -as (E.g. Classical Latin Aquae-> Akuas)
-----Genitive plural: -aom (E.g. Latin Zoelarum -> Zoilaom).

-Consonant-stem
-----Genitive plural: -om (E.g. Latin Portus Amanum -> Bortos Amanom)

-I-stem
-----Genitive plural: -iom (E.g. Latin Portus Blendium -> Bortos Blentiom)

OTHER

---Specific names where a different root is used
-----Latin Vissaium -> Tartessian/Lusitanian Wissaieigobor

---Lusitanian

I played around with giving Lusitanian some more Celtic-ish rules. Again they might not all be accurate.

---eu -> ou (E.g. Greek Zaleukos -> Zaloukos)
---ei, except for in the last syllable of a word -> long e (E.g. Teitebas -> Tetebas)
---long o -> long u in the final syllable of a word or long a otherwise (E.g. Latin Cato, Greek Zotikos -> Celtic Katu, Zatikos)
--/g/ lost before e or i like in Gallaecian (E.g. Segisamos -> Seisamos)

IBERIAN/AQUITANIAN

Aquitanian was a non-Celtic language closely related to (or just an ancestor of) modern Basque. Iberian was likely related, and so has been grouped with Aquitanian here.

Nonetheless, they are both obscure languages. I ended up having them share many rules due to lack of information.

DECLENSION
These languages aresn’t Indo-European, so following the stem/case system of Greek/Italic/Celtic doesn’t really make sense. However, Iberian did have a known plural and genitive, and I ended up using it for Aquitanian as well due to a lack of better information.

---Plural was -k? (E.g. Artigi/Artigoi, Aquae -> Artigok/Artigoko/Artikoko, Akuak/Akuaka)
---Genitive singular was -r? (E.g. Flaviae -> Blauiar/Balauiar)
---Genitive plural was -ken? (E.g. Lapatiancorum, Zoelarum, Amanum, Blendium -> Labatiankoken, Soilaken/Zoilaken, Amanken, Belendiken/Blendiken)

OTHER

--lack of initial r- (E.g. Rutilios -> Utilios)

-Iberian

ALPHABET AND ROMANIZATION

The Iberian language was written in 3 different scripts. Southeastern Iberian, Northeastern Iberian, and Greco-Iberian.
The differences between Southeastern and Northeastern Iberian do not affect the resulting romanization, however both Southeastern and Northeastern came with a “dual” and “non-dual” variant, which does matter for our purposes.
As it happens, Southeastern is best known from its “non-dual” variant, and Northeastern, at least in the Iberia mod’s early timeframe, is best known from its “dual” variant, so in this mod the division non-dual/dual ends up mirroring the Southeastern/Northeastern division.
I don’t know how accurate this is as Iberian remains poorly attested and I didn’t have a lot of information on hand.

---Dual-signary Iberian

---The Iberian symbols for /b/, /g/, /d/, /k/ and /t/ had syllabic values (somewhat similar to Japanese writing systems).
This means they had no individual symbols for just the consonants /b/, /g/, /d/, /k/, /t/ but instead “combined” symbols, standing at once for the consonant (/b/, /g/, /d/, /k/ or /t/) and the subsequent vowel (/a/, /e/, /i/, /o/ or /u/) for a total of 25 symbols.
(E.g. no symbol for just /b/, but 5 different symbols for combined /ba/, /be/, /bi/, /bo/ and /bu/).

Due to the lack of a symbol for the consonant just on its own, when a /b/, /g/, /d/, /k/ or /t/ was directly in front of a consonant they were still forced to use one of the combined consonant-vowel symbols even though there was no vowel really there. The version of the symbol chosen would then usually depend on the next vowel in the word.
(E.g. Kart, Bolvax, Abdert, Dactonium, Septimanca, Iltrida, -briga endings -> Karta, Boluakas, Abedert, Dakotoniom, Sebitimanka, Iltirida, -biriga)
However, other consonants (/r/, /l/, /s/, /z/, /m/, /n/) did not have syllabic values, and there were also separate symbols for just the 5 vowels on their own.

---Double consonants ignored (E.g. Sulla -> Sula)
---Lacked a symbol for /p/, which is written B (E.g. Pausanias -> Bausanias)
---no symbol for /h/ which isn’t written (E.g. Archaic Greek Helenos -> Elenos)
---/w/ is written as U (E.g. Segovia -> Segouia)
---/j/ is written as i (E.g. Latin Julius (Ivlivs) -> Iulios)

Representation of foreign sounds:
---Greek /y/-value Upsilon just represented as U
---Greek Theta, Chi, Phi just represented with T, K, B
---Latin /f/ is represented with B (E.g. Fimbria -> Bimbiria)
---/z/ represented with S (E.g. Zosimos -> Sosimos)

---Non-dual signary Iberian

---Same as dual-signary, but didn’t differentiate /d/ and /g/ from /t/ and /k/ respectively. (E.g. Dual Beligiom, Durmios -> Non-Dual Belikiom, Turmios)

---Greco-Iberian

A small Iberian territory (approximately the in-game Contestani area) adopted a Greek alphabet directly from the Greeks in the Hemeroskopeion/Akra Leuke area.
However, their adaptation of the Greek alphabet did have some peculiarities.

---Adopting a Greek alphabet means they just have simply B, D, G, T, K rather than the 15-25 syllabic consonant-vowel combination symbols of the native Iberian scripts.
---They did not adopt Pi and Mu (presumably /p/ and /m/ were uncommon or non-existent sounds in Iberian), I opted to represent /p/ and /m/ with B and N instead (I’m not 100% sure if N for /m/ is accurate though) (E.g. Pausanias, Marios -> Bausanias, Narios)
---Also did not adopt Phi, Theta, Chi, Xi and Zeta.
---no symbol for /h/ which isn’t written (E.g. Archaic Greek Helenos -> Elenos)
---/w/ is written as U (E.g. Segovia -> Segouia)
---/j/ is written as i (E.g. Latin Julius (Ivlivs) -> Iulios)

Representation of foreign sounds:
---Greek /y/-value Upsilon just represented as U
---Greek Theta, Chi, Phi just represented with T, K, B
---/z/ represented with S (E.g. Zosimos -> Sosimos)
---Latin /f/ is (presumably) represented with B (E.g. Fimbria -> Bimbria)

-Aquitanian

Alphabet and romanization

The Aquitanians (at least the Vascones in Iberia) seem to have used a Celtiberian script. I used the Eastern Celtiberian script, see the “alphabet and romanization” section of Celtiberian.