EARLY GAME: (level 1 tech)
-A science part
-A command pod

MID GAME: (level 5 tech)
-More than one science part
-A command pod (or probe core if you are unsure that your kerbals will return)
-Batteries
-A power source
-A transmitter

LATE GAME: (you define)
By the time you reach this level you should have figured this out for yourself...

The general science parts, or the materials bay and the goo container, provide qualitative observations. Note that these observations are based off and similar to what would really happen in space with knowledge found in similar experiments.

To use ANY science part:
1) RIGHT click on the part
2) select the option most similar to:
-"Observe"
-"Collect"
-"Analyze"
3) Choose to delete, keep, or transmit the data. Note that you should always transmit a crew report provided you have a power generator.

You can also use EVAs for this. They can collect samples and file EVA reports. They are then stored in any housing pod they enter (excluding the external command seat), and they may explore again. The EVA science menu is obtained by right clicking the EVA. EVA science can be rather comical to watch with lines such as "I don't think a spacesuit was necessary to walk here, was it?" when walking on Kerbin.

After taking note of a specific state, obtaining that data again will provide only 50% of the science. The science value is coded as s*2^-n where s is the base science points and n is the amount of times the circumstance has been researched.

When i say "Circumstance," i mean that there are multiple places around the system with varying conditions for science. For instance, in Low Kerbin Orbit, (70-200 km) High Kerbin Orbit (200+ km), Mun Orbit, Mun Landing, etc. There are even science points available for researching conditions in DIFFERENT BIOMES on the SAME PLANET, most notably Kerbin.

(Tip for 1 free early tech: Take a surface sample of the launchpad [Spoiler: There is nuclear residual on the pad from the exhaust])

The following will discuss Quantitative parts and why they are useful for more than just science points.

The GRAVMAX Negative Graviolli Detector is used to determine gravitational acceleration in units of m/s^2. 1g is about 10m/s^2 (exactly 9.8m/s^2). knowing the gravitational force at a given altitude can tell you what you are up against. If the Graviolli detector reads 48m/s^2, then you have to accelerate upward at approximatley 48m/s^2 to maintain your current altitude. to give you an idea, the "Mainsail" engine runs an acceleration of about 30 m/s^2 for a 50 kilogram rocket, and the gravity on the surface of Kerbin is exactly 9.8 m/s^2. this means the rocket will soar upward at a rate increasing by 20.2 m/s each second! If you are interested why, know that Force (in newtons)=Mass (in kilograms)*Acceleration (in m/s^2).This is a law made by a scientist who al astrophysicists practically worship, Isaac Newton. If you know the force acted upon the object, and the mass of the object, then divide the force by the mass to get acelleration. Force is given in the item description as "Max Power."

Why is this important? Well, if you go to a planet that has more gravity then kerbin, it will take more thrust to go the same vertical distance in the same time! If you don't have enough thrust or fuel, you could end up shipwrecked! remember to chek gravity. I do this by sending a probe to my target planet, and taking measurements of the desired orbit. then i crash the probe and take note of its readings as it desecends.

Remember, that with all of these, you don't need exact calculations. They would be useful, but you can survive with only a general idea.

Accelerometer gives you your net acceleration. Remember when I mentioned that gravity affects your acceleration? well, the Accelerometer will tell you your G-force, or the force acting upon something in g. g is technically a measure of acceleration, not force. Using g is used as a base ratio for determining force acted upon objects even if they have different masses.

if the g gets to high, then that means something is putting a lot of force on your rocket, and it could collapse. My reccomendation for that? slow down. Humans can survive for over 5g before being squashed flat. Only trained astronauts can survive 5g without throwing up, however. Ever heard of the vomit comet?

Air has weight. Not to be confused with mass. Air has both mass and weight, but you tend to be more focused on weight, or PRESSURE, when it comes to air. Pressure is a measure of the average weight of the air over an area. Air pressure can slow you down, and affect your efforts to liftoff! Barometers can measure the pressure for you. Mostly in Pascals or Millibars. Pascals are more of what you are interested in, however. One pascal is 1 Newton per square meter. The pressure at Kerbin's surface is about 100,000 Pascals!

If you are trying to find a good orbit, then you must burn until the Periapis is at an altitude read as "IN VACCUM" by your barometer. if you wis to land on a planet or object with atmosphere, simply burn retrograde until the periapsis is at an altitude where your barometer would give you a value greater than 0. As you cross into atmospheric pressure, the air drag will decrease your apoapsis. Then you just deploy the chutes! More reason to send and crash a probe or rover ahead of you.

If you'll notice, parts have a max heat resistance on them. If they overheat from engine exhaust, or if you get to close to the sun, they will explode. To avoid this, some mods have coolant systems. The thermometer can be used with them to efficientley use coolant. But remember, sun proximity is not the only source of extreme temperatures.

Without greenhouse gases to regulate temperature, it can get cold or hot on the night or day side respectively on ANY celestial object (including man-made). and i mean the respective extreme with those temperatures. With too much greenhouse gases, the planet can get really hot. This is what happened to Venus, and what climatologists whink will happen to Earth.




And that's all i know for now. Note that what i have said here are the very reasons real rocket scientists use these kinds of instruments and send rovers and probes to other places. before we set foot on the moon, we sent a probe to learn about the moon's gravity, atmosphere, and temperature.

GOOD LUCK, FUTURE SCIENTIST/STATISTICIAN!

also, sorry for no pictures, my computer is crap. i also kind of acctidentally hit "Terminate Flight" on my Mun probe, which i would have used for my examples. :(